BOSTON UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
THESIS
BEGINNINGS OF MALkDirySTMEKl AND DBLHKjP^MCl&!
k STUDY OF IKE METHODS OF Li^T^CTIOiM'
uojjD IN THIRTEEN LARGE ClTIhS
Submitted by
Helen Augusta Prince
(B. A. in Ed., Eastern Washington College, 1954)
In partial fulfillment of requirements for
tne degree of Master of Education
19 4 7
First Reader : Dr. Helen B. Sullivan, Associate Professor of
Education
Second Reader: Dr. John J. Mahoney, Professor of Education
Third Reader : Mr. Franklin C. Roberts, Professor of Education
Boston University
School of Education
Library
School 0f r^cs^'0^
4CEN0VI/LEDGIIENTS
The autnor wishes tc express her sincere appreciation
and thanks to Dr. Helen Blair Sullivan, Associate Professor
of Education for her helpful guidance and criticism. She
also wishes to thank Dr. William C. Kvaraceus, Assistant
Professor of Education, and Mr. Francis J. Daly, Director of
the bureau of Child Adjustment in Boston. Thanks are due
the Directors of Guidance, who so graciously furnished the
needed information.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
C-^PT^R I P&GE
Introduction
Statement of the Problem
Importance of the Study
Definitions of Terms Used
Organization of the Study
CHAPTER II
Related Readings
The Teacher as a Factor in Maladjustment
Traits Common to Delinquents
Prediction of Delinquency
Symptoms of Maladjustment
.Teachers1 Attitudes
Early Individual Treatment
Need cf Definite Program
School Graces
Adjustment Services
CHAPTER III
Summary cf the Material Compiled from. . .
Thirteen Large Cities V.rorking in the
Field
Conclusions
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CHAPTER IV PhGE
Suggestions for further Study and
Research
BIBLIOGRAPHY
.-.r^^i^IX
LIST OF TABLES
liiBLE I PaGE
Means Used to Sensitize Classroom Teachers
in Thirteen Large Cities
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CHAPTER I
X. INTRODUCTION
The classroom teacher, more than any other person,
is in a positien to detect lack of adjustment in the school
child. When tne teacher is ignorant of the meaning of
these symptoms of behavior, it remains for some ether agency
to discover the maladjustment. By that time the cnild may
be a clinical or juvenile court case. Therefore, it is
imperative that this discovery be made as early as possible.
The earlier the malaa justment is discovered, the greater
are the chances that treatment will be effective.
Recent studies seem to show that it is entirely
possible to detect deviations very early, if the adults who
are associated with these boys and girls are alert to tne
symptoms and their meaning.
Since most children are in school for at least eight
years, from the ages of six to fourteen, for the greater
part of their waking hours, it would seem that the school
is the logical :.lace for these abnormalities to be dis-
covered.
II. THE PROBLEM
Statement of the Problem. It is the purpose of this
study to attempt to show (l) that there are some definite
symptoms that usually precede delinquency; (£) that the
classroom teacher and others associated with the child
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in school should be sensitized to the early indications
of maladjustment, so tha.t treatment may be initiated at
that period, thus saving many children from more serious
involvements and actual delinquency; (3) what some of the
large cities in tne United States are doing to pick up the
beginnings of maladjustment.
III. IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY
For the past one hundred years a great deal has
been said and written about the increase in the amount of
juvenile delinquency, An article in the Atlantic Montniy
for December 1S26, states that periodically since 1840,
alarming statements have been made concerning juvenile
2/
delinquency. In 1985, Haggerty stated that there were
more children with behavior problems in the public schools
than most of us cared to acmit. Ee also went on to state
that ti.ere was a growing belief that we must take seriously
these early behavior disorders, if we are to ■ . . . prevent
the dreadful toll which crime and insanity in their mere
serious forms levy upon our on-coming generation." In 1934,
illiams emphasized tne urgency of discovering these
disorders at tne earliest possible moment. Even at that
1/ A. B. Hulbert, "The Habit of Going to the Devil"
Atlantic Monthly , 158 ; 806-6, December 1926.
2/ M. E. Haggerty, "Incidence of Undesirable Behavior in
Public School Children" Journal of Educational
Research. 12:103, September 1935.
3/ Herbert.. D. Williams, "A Survey of Predelinquent School
Cnildren of Ten Midwestern Cities" . Journal of
Educational Sociology. 7:565, February 1954.
t
time ...illiams believed that there were definite symptoms
which were indicative of maladjustment, especially when
found in company with other unfavorable conditions. 3y
V
1945, Spence statea that the school's greatest contribu-
tion is in trie detection of vulnerables and these vulner-
able s are frequently tiiose children who do not fit the
typical school pattern. In writing of the classroom
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teacher's part in relation to delinquency, Keener states
that
Treatment is necessary, but prevention is both
more economical and mere effective.
y
Gane, executive Secretary of the Children's Aid
Society and the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to
Children, Buffalo, New York, wrote that the most effective
program for the prevention of delinquency is trie one which
can be set up by the schools, where the child's difficul-
ties are observed and recognized for the first time by
personnel trained to understand him.
1/ Ralph B. Soence, "Hew York State's Program for Pre-
venting Delinquency," Journal o£ Aduca.ticnal Sociology,
18:459, March 1945.
§/ Edward, B. Keener, "Classroom Teacher and Juvenile
Delinquency," r.lemer.tary School Journal . 40:55, Sept. 1939.
3/ E. Marguerite Gane, "Social Agencies Stand Ready to
Help 5 r.'e.. York State education. 51:179, December 1945.
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Hill again points tne problem when he asks, "Have
the schools done all they could do in preventing and
correcting anti-social tendencies in young children and
adolescents?"
IV. DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED
Behavior Problem, Whenever behavior disturbs the
ordinary routine of tne classroom activity, a problem is
created.
Maladjustment. In this stuay, maladjustment ?;ill
be used to indicate a lack of narmcny with tiie environment,
caused by the child's failure to reach a satisfactory
adjustment between his desires and his conditions of life.
Juvenile Delinquent. This is a legal term applied
only to those youths who have violated a law or ordinance
and been brought into scu.e type of court.
V. ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY
In the following chapter, the pertinent literature
in the field will be reviewed to show the trend of thinking
among educators and social workers in regard to behavior
problems ana delinquency, and to show that it is generally
accepted that there are definite symptoms which should be
heeded.
Correspondence ana reports received by the writer
1/ George E. Hill, "Fewer Schools — More Jails," Education
55:558, May 1935.
from school systems in twelve cities will oe reviewed and
summarized to see wxiat agreement is evident in their
preventive programs as they have been set up. In addition
to reviewing the findings, an attempt will be made to show
that tue whole program, in the last analysis, depends
largely on tue classroom teacher, who must oe sensitized
to the urgency of tne problem.
It is tne contention of the writer that, first, the
teacher must be interested in boys ana girls as individuals
and numan beings, and tnen, understand their normal devel-
opment and behavior before sne will be able to detect
deviations. An open-minued attitude and willingness to
co-operate are essential. There is nothing mysterious or
psychic about discovering the beginnings of maladjustment.
The studies, which will be reviewed in the following
chapter, show the great concern with which educators have
been viewing tne problem of maladjustment and delinquency,
but they also seem to show that the greatest single agency
in prevention is the school.
>
I. RELATED READINGS
As stated in the previous chapter, the v/ritar has
felt that the beginning of maladjustment and delinquency
could and should be detected long before it reaches the
stage that could be called delinquency . While discussing
the subject with a superintendent of schools in a city in
Oregon, relative to taking this year for study, he stated
that his observations had lea him to believe that delinquent
tendencies could be detected even in trie first grade in
many cases. There must be some pattern of traits that
begins to form and is evident to anyone looking for it.
This idea seems to have been confirmed by many
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studies in tne field. As early as 1934, nVilliams stated
that
Since all children attend school at least
in the early grades, the school would seem to
be tne logical place to discover the predelin-
quent while his delinquent tendencies are still
in the incipient stages of development. Previous
studies have convinced the writer that this is
possible.
The responsibility of tne school is emphasized in
the statement contained in tne United States Office of
1/ Herbert D. Williams, op. cit. p. o65
u
Education publication, £aucs ticn for Victory, v/nich says
that within tne possibilities of every school is the early
discovery of tendencies which, if not remedied, lead to
delinquency.
The high rate of delinquency in tne intermediate
grades and junior nigh school leads one to believe that
tnese children have been deviating from tne normal pattern
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of benavior for some time. Snyaer places the peak of all
benavior problems in the sixth grace.
y
In St. Paul, Minnesota it was found that as the
result of a planned program carried on in one district of
the city, it was possible to recognize deviations at an
earlier age. In 1337, wnen tne study began, tne median
age for referrals was thirteen years, while five years
1/ U. S. Office of Education, "Schools Called upon to
Assume Larger Shares in Prevention of Delinquency,"
Zdueat-en for Victory , 1:£5 Larch 15, 1943.
2/ Louise May Snyder, "The Problem Child in the Jersey
City Elementary Schools," Journal o£ r, questional Sociology ,
7: 55 J Pt. 1, February 1934.
3/ Katherine Lenroot, "Delinquency Prevention Through
School and Social Agency Co-ordination," Educational
Forum, November 1943 (Reprint for U. S. Children's Bureau)
P. 11
later in 194S, the median age had dropped to ten years.
II. THE TEAOBER «.S A FaCTCR M MkLADJUSTifiEiMT
'/veston states tnat it is a well-known fact that
some classroom teachers recognize aistress signals more
quickly and clearly than others, but that
... in that millennium when all of us are
interested and trained to understand emotional
problems, we shall all do a better job at this
early recognition ana acceptance of them.
1/
. ickman suggests tnat teachers should have a more
general knowledge of what constitutes normal child behavior.
Many so-called problem children are really misunderstood,
but very normal children. On the otner hand, many types
of behavior classed as normal by tiie classroom teacher are
not normal even though they may be common. 'Although the
school staffs are trained to handle children, they fre-
quently need a clearer understanding of behavior problem
is the belief of S pence. This belief is also expressed
V
by the mental nygienist Fenton when he says,
1/ Helen E. 'Veston, "The School fs Role in Preventing
Delinquency," New York State Education. ,51:177 Dec. 1943
2/ E. Koster '.Vickman, Children1 s behavior one. Teachers *
Attitudes , Comuonwealth Fund, New York, 19£8 p. 182
3/ Ralph B. Spence, op. cit. p. 439
4/ Norman Fenton, I,;.ental Hygiene and School Practice,
Stanford University Press, Stanford University, California,
1943 p. 103
4
For the teacher to really understand the
pupil, she must know about his background, his
earlier human relationships, especially his
parents, brothers, sisters, servants and others;
now he was treated by them, his feeling for them,
their attitudes, interest, affection; his later
relationships with neighbors and playmates.
During the period when character education courses
were common in Teachers' Colleges, Peyser wrote that
teachers and supervisors must comprehend the psychology of
character formation. They should understand the "factors
that enter into the causation of normal personality" and
those that lead to conflict and maladjustment.
2/
Haggerty believes that,
. . . the exciting cause for undesirable
behavior on the part of children is sometimes
the teacner herself who falls short cf complete
adaptation to the school situation.
We find this opinion as to the rule of the school
in causing maladjustments also expressed in this fashion
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by Kvaraceus,
So long as teachers will continue to concern
themselves solely with academic growth and to
disregard the importance of fundamental Changes
in human behavior, we may expect that they will
persist in failing and frustrating one pupil
after another.
1/ Nathan Peyser, "Public Schools and the Problem of
Grime Prevent ion y Journal cf Educational Sociology 6:124
November 1952
2/ H. E. Haggerty, op. ext. p. 105
3/ William C. Xvaraceus, Juvenile Delinquency and the
School . World Book Co., Ycnkers-on-Huason, New York,
1945, p. 144
•<2fc<<
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The ss authors nave put forth serious indictments
against the classroom teachers. It is interesting to note
v
that Eaggerty made his statement over twenty years ago.
His was as the tTveice of one crying in the wilderness" at
that time. In the recent literature, we find the same idea
expressed over and over again.
III. TRAITS COmMuw TO DELINQUENTS
2/
One phase of the study by Wickman attempted to
discover what traits mace a child Ts behavior distressing
to his teachers. Whispering was placed first by a large
majority of the teachers with all forms of aggressive
behavior more frequently mentioned than the withdrawing
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types. Snyaer found that annoying other pupils was listed
most frequently by teachers as a fault of their pupils,
being mentioned 150 times; inattention was second, mentioned
100 times; while sensitiveness was mentioned only twice
and fear fulness only once.
\ In the light of the many studies tnat have been
made, it seems that authorities are beginning to agree
tnat there are some traits or characteristics common to
most delinquents. In most of these studies, aggressive
1/ H. E. Eaggerty, op. cit. p. 105
2/ S. K. wickman, op. cit. p. 63-70
5/ Louise M. Snyder, op. cit. p. 344
behavior of all types is mentioned most frequently as a
cause of behavior difficulties. Some of the most common
forms of aggressive behavior are fighting, bullying,
meddling j acts against property, insolence, ana defiance
of authority.
y
Elliott is of the opinion that a withdrawal from
activities may be more serious than overt behavior. Seme
of the most common forms of regressive behavior are:
day dreaming, timidity, shyness, bed wetting, extremely
quiet, masturbation, feeling inferior, nervousness, and
listlessness.
Under the heading of "Social Trait Differences"
2/
Fisher lists: disinterested in school work, cheating 9
unnecessary tardiness, lying, defiance of authority,
marked over-activity, unpopularity with other children,
temper outbursts, bullying, speech difficulties, imaginative
lying, sex offenses, stealing and truancy. She also states
that the greatest difference between problem and non-
problem children is in the it am "unpopularity with other
children" .
1/ Eugene 3. Elliott, Helping tue .exceptional Cnila in
the Regular Glassrooffij Bulletin #315, Department of Public
Instruction in Michigan p. 47
2/ Mildred L. Fisx'.er, "Measured Differences between
Problem and Non-Problem Children in the Public School
System? Journal of Educational Sociology . 7:<558-<J>59
February 1934
IV. PREDICTION OF DELINQUENCY
1/
Haggerty found the following factors closely
allied in problem children: (l) over age and retarded,
(2) low intelligence, (2) undesirable behavior. Very
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nearly the same traits were discovered by Kvaraceus
in nis study of delinquents in Passaic, Nev< Jersey. He
found that school retardation, low intelligence, truancy
and fre iUent tardiness, expressed dislike for school,
unsatisfactory social adjustment, and low socio-economic
home conditions were common to a great proportion of tne
delinquents*
2/
Dr. Eleanor Glueck of Harvard University in her
lacture stated that she and Dr. Sheldon Glueck are now
attempting to isolate factors that are common to delinquents
and that mignt be used to predict delinquency. Their
study is not complete, but Dr. Eleanor Glueck believes
that school retardation, low intelligence, truancy, and
tardiness, especially when in conjunction with low socio-
economic background, make a fairly good index for
predicting future delinquency.
1/ M. E. Haggerty, op. cit. p. 116
2/ William C. Kvaraceus, op. cit. pp. 155-156
'6j Eleanor T. Glueck, Harvard University Lecture,
"Delinquency and Social Upheavals in Adolescence",
delivered before class, Bases of Behavior in Boston
University, December S, 1946
V. SIMPTOMS OF MALADJUSTMENT
1/
A report of the Massachusetts Child Council gives
as classroom evidences of maladjustment:
1. Repeated failure in studies
2. Offenses against school discipline
a . Truancy
b. Tardiness
c. Insolence
d. Petty Stealing
e. Cheating
f. Lying
5. Group misfit
a. Shyness
b. Solitariness
c. Over-aggression
d. Hyperactivity
In the Bulletin Crime ?i evention Through Education j,
are given these traits suggestive of behavior-problem
children: apathy, sensitiveness, seclusiveness, tendency to
\J Massachusetts Child Council, Juvenile Delinquency in
'vlassachusetts sl Public Responsibility . Boston, 19-39,
pp. 159-140
2/ National Education Association Research Bulletin,
Crime Prevention Throurn Education, 10:132 September 1952
cry easily, moodiness, unpopularity and inability to get
along, and cruelty to animals and otner persons. These are
listed in addition to the other traits that have been given
from otner sources.
1/
In a recent article, Roland makes the following
statement :
One child may be withdrawn, inhibited and unob-
trusive; another defiant, aggressive and socially
unacceptable. Each is probably emotionally sick to
some degree or otner and at odas with his environment,
including the people in it. The school is midway,
being part of his every -day living; yet is only
secondary in importance, for, problems which seem
centered in the classroom may stem from the home,
the parent-child relationship. Rebellion against
authority at home may be unconsciously transferred to
the teacher at school.
She states further that some problems arise because the
child feels that ne is not like other children. This may
become a proolem, if the child cannot accept this difference
and learn to live with it. The child who is tallest,
fattest, the one who wears glasses, or has red hair, or
is lame, or hard of hearing, unable to read, or whose
parents speak no English, may never tell why he behaves as
he does. He may not really know. He may become retiring
and withdrawn, or ne may over-compensate by being aggressive
in self-defense, or from fear of his own inferiority, ne
may develop other signs of maladjustments
1/ Mary C. Roland, "Help for Problem Children", Nations
Schools 36:25-27, November 1345
A further list of symptoms of maladjustment and
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possibly of predelinquency is given by Williams as follows:
Constantly annoys children near by, misconduct in
school, disrespect for authority, ^uarrels with otner
children, indifferent to rights and opinions of otners,
lacks good sportsmanship, lies, inability to appreciate
consequences, easily lea, uncleanliness in oooy and
clothes, tries to dominate other children, associates
with bad companions, abnormal desire for attention,
over age for grade, inadequate parental supervision,
poverty, ignorance of parents, irregular attendance.
He also included on the physical side, undernourished,
defective teeth, unduly awkward, defective visxon, or
defective speech.
2/
Fenton lists symptoms of maladjustment from t^e
point of view of the mental hygienist, so we have several
additions to the already long list. He lists the symptoms
according to types and also as to grade and age levels.
A. Nervous nabits
1. Preschool and elementary
'vVorry, Speech retardation, fears, temper
tantrums, over-dependency, bashfulness, negativism,
inuresis, nail-biting, tnumb- sucking . (Average
of three symptoms per child .J
2. Adolescent
Opinionated, disorderly, easily annoyed,
impudent, awkward, chronic fatigue, display of
1/ Herbert D. v/illiams, op. cit. p. 369
2/ Norman Fenton, op. cit. pp. 15 '±-155
aggression, and temper. ■
B. Marked insubordination
Constant disagreeableness, serious aggressive
or destructive behavior, frequent truancy, extreme
seclusiveness, repeated stealing, running away
from home, reading retardation, speech defect,
sexual maladjustment.
C. Dangerous aggressiveness or aestructiveness,
juvenile delinquency, emotional instability,
actual mental or nervous illness, serious reading
disability (non-reader), serious speech disability.
1/
Hewitt and Jenkins list the following as situa-
tional items which are often ^resent in the background of
the maladjusted ana delinquent cuiid.
A. Vicious hone conditions
B. Tmriioral home conditions
C. Discord between parents
D. Brother in penal detention
E. Feebleminded sibling
They also list the characteristics of delinquents according
to three syndromes;
A • Unsocial
1/ Lester E. Hewitt and Richard L. Jenkins, Fundamental
patterns of maladjustment , j&g Dynamics o£ TUelr Qfjgxxi,
printed by authority of the State of Illinois, 1946
1. Assaultive tendencies
2. Initiatory fighting
3. Cruelty
4. Open defiance to authority
5. Malicious mischief
6. Inadequate guilt feeling
7. Refusal to accept blame
3. Can't get along with others
9. Boastful
10. Selfish
11. Deceitful
IS, Suspicious
13. Overtly seeks revenge
14. Obscene, profane language
15. Petty thieving
16. Overt interest in sex
17. Moods of hatred and self-pity
Socialized delinquency behavior
1. Undesirable companions
2. Gang activities
3. Co-operative stealing
4. Furtive stealing
5. Habitual school truancy
6. Running away from home over ni
7. Staying, out late nights
C. Over -inhibit sd behavior
1. Seclusiveness
2. Shyness
5. Apathy
4. worry
5. Sensitiveness
6. Submissiveness
7. Day dreaming
8. Cver-dependence
9. Cries easily
10. Fears
11. Feels inferior
12. Compulsions
IS. Indecisiveness
14. Easily depressed
15 . Anxiety
16. Anxiety attacks, terror dreams, sleep
disturbances
i/
Hill studied the records of adult offenders and
found certain factors common to their early history.
Almost invariably their school histories showed retardation,
left school earlier, failure, non-participation, and other
behavior difficulties.
y George E. Hill, "Fewer Schools — More Jails %
Education. 55:528, May 1S35
f
y
Hollingworth found that even the very gifted children
were reported for behavior a if i'iculties, though not in
such large numbers, but principally because of restlessness,
lack of interest, rebellion against authority, and what
she terms a "condition of negative suggestibility".
The study of Massachusetts schools conducted by the
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Massachusetts Child Council snowed about the same class-
room evidences of maladjustment, namely: (l) repeated
failure in studies; (2) offenses against school discipline,
truancy, tardiness, insolence, petty stealing, cheating
and lying; (5) group misfit — shyness, solitariness, over-
aggression ana hyperactive. This study also ccnsiaered
the type of home from which tne juvenile offenders came
and found again, sc-ae common factors. It must be remem-
bered that any one of these factors uoes not cause
delinquency j but when coupled with other predisposing
factors, may be an indication and, as such, should be
studied.
1/ Leta S. Hollingworth, Children Above lbO I . Q . ,
forld Book Co., Yonkers-on-Hudson, N. Y.,1942 p. £54
Z/ Massachusetts Child Council Juvenile delinquency in
Massachusetts,, a_ Public responsibility , Boston, 1939
p. 117
In the family background of delinquents, these factors
were found to be common:
1. Broken or poorly supervisee ncme
2. Known to one or more social agencies
2. Foreign-born parents
4. Poor neighborhood influences
5. Economic conditions, marginal or dependent
6. Poor morG.1 standards
7. Poor . parental discipline
8. Poor physical home
9. Previous court record in family
10. One or both parents illiterate
11. Six or more cnildren
12. Mental defect or disease
Common personal characteristics wex-e:
1. Lack of constructive leisure interests
2. Harmful companions
c. Native-born
4. Began working when juvenile — street trade
5. Bad habits
6. Never a member of a crowd or gang
7. Larceny and burglary are predominant offenses
8 . Truant
9. Two or mere ears retarded or in a special els
1C. Dull border-line defective
XX m Mental distortion
12. Previous foster care
In studying the case hi. stories of delinquents
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v.'ho had maue violent and dangerous attacks, Topping found
these characteristics making a frequently repeated pattern:
1. Early rejection by parents
2. Evident sense of "nobody cares"
3. Masked, but acute, desire for acceptance
and affection
4. Pronounced ambivalence
5. Aggressive speecn ;.itn much talk of killing
6. A sense of the pressure of life being
too great
7. Easy resort to dangerous weapons
8. Indifference to consequences, even death as
a penalty
9. Lack of humor
10. Lack of insight
11. Frequently over -pronounced sex drive
So far this all ados up to an appalling array of
symptoms. Tnis does not include some of the longer lists
1/ Ruth Topping, "Case Studies of Aggressive Delinquents"
American Journal c£ Orthopsychiatry , 11:465-492
1941
*
1/
of which v.'ickman's is probably the best known. This
list was net included because it was made up of traits
that annoyed teachers, but net tne traits that were found
to be most indicative of maladjustment. The list of
behavior problems given by the mental hygienists in Vs/ick-
<J
man's study coincia.es very closely with traits listed in
this paper.
VI. TEACHERS' ATTITUDES
Most of tne studies conducted, so far, in regard
to tine classroom teacher's attitude toward behavior
problems and what they do about them, have not been very
2/
flattering to the teachers. Snyder found in a study of
problem children, that the teacners quite generally agreed
that
Problems were most commonly dealt with by
scolding, counseling, or punishment. A few
specified clinical or scientific study of tne
problem.
Suggestic.ns as to the needs of the child were largely
disciplinary, such as "should be made to realize that
instant obedience is necessary," or "should oe inculcated
with a fear of breaking school regulations." It was
1/ E. K. V.ickman, op. cit. pp. 31-32 and 68-72
2/ E. K. v/ickman, ibid. p. 1^7
2/ Louis May Snyder, op. cit. pp. 349-350
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interesting to note that the teachers who were r
above average or superior were tne only ones who were not
entirely satisfied with the handling of the problems.
It becomes evident in the light of previous studies
that the program of prevention and early detection will
have to be brought to the classroom teacher in a more
forceful manner, if her interest and co-operation are to
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be enlisted. Again referring to Wickman's study, he
says that by reason of an adult's superior knowledge, he
should be able to change his benavicr more readily than a
child. He believes that the reason adults refuse to
change their ideas about discipline is that it would amount
to a confession of misbenavior on the part of the adult.
This is more marked on tne part of the teacher tnan the
parent because with the teacher, her professional pride
is involved, thus re-educating tne adult meets an obstacle
at the very outset.
Another factor to be considered is the emoticnal
adjustment of the aault. Has the adult achieved personal
satisfactions in life, satisfactory social relationships
v.ith others, did he learn to accept authority and has he
made a satisfactory personal adjustment to love and sex
life? If the teacher is still having difficulties in
adjusting to principals, supervisors, administrators and
1/ E. K. V'ickman, op. cit. pp. 176-177
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other teachers, the issue of authority becomes a problem
between the teacher and the pupil.
1/
•vickinan suggests that the most profitable project
weald be to train student teacuers in the study and
treatment of behavior problems. Experienced teacners who
have established a reputation as "good disciplinarians"
usually show an emotional resistance to adopting a new
viewpoint in regard to handling discipline problems.
S/
'Wickman believes that
In the active social sense, there is no behavior
problem unless someone reacts to it as such. Any
form of conduct may become a problem, if it is
regarded and treated as undesirable behavior by the
social group in which the individual lives.
2/
Fentcn agrees with this, when he says that
The definition of a behavior problem is in reference
to the particular neighborhood, particular classroom
and teacher and particular heme and parent.
If this is true, then the classroom teacner's
role becomes most important in reference to the child's
school adjustment. The mental hygienists nave for years
been deploring the fact that so many teachers are
emotionally unstable, neurotic, and, in some instances,
psychotic. Out of the total number of teachers, this
number is comparatively small, but ti^ere is no way of
1/ E. K. Wickman, op. cit. p. 184
2/ E. K. Wickman, ibid. p. 3
3/ Norman Fentcn, cp. cit. p. 144
r-
estimating the damage that these few teachers have acne
to the pupils who nave had the misfortune to come in
contact with them. Some failure, retardation, truancy,
and emotional inbalance have no doubt resulted from these
contacts. The teacher who has lest control cf nor own
emotions cannot be expected to aid a child in gaining
control of his emotions.
Fenton statea further that,
The secure teacher is able to consider the reason
for the child's misbehavior rather than to be con-
cerned with what he does.
y
Roland argues in the same vein, when she says:
The teacher is not expected to De a psychotherapist
and be responsible for treating and correcting every
problem which appears in her room. She can, however,
use the clinical point of view in recognizing that a
child's problem behavior is not an end in itself,
but an open declaration of his conflicts and often
his negative way of asking for help.
In the Final Report of the New Jersey Juvenile
Delinquency Commission we find the statement:
When they (children) transgress it is because they
are confronted with a situation which they lack
judgment to solve in any other way or because they
are expected to comply with adult rules which mean
nothing to them in terms of their own understanding.
Much of the traditional school discipline was cf the type
imposed by the school and was meaningless to the cnild.
1/ Norman Fenton, op. cit. p. 184
Mary C. Roland, cp. cit. p. 86
3/ Justice and the Child in New Jersey, Final Report of
ST. J. Juvenile Delinquency Commission, Trenton, N.J. 19S9
p. "HI
Many cf the studies dealing with symptoms of
maladjustment list truancy as an outstanding factor. The
u
New York Crime Commission Report contains this quotation,
One cf the first overt acts of the delinquent is
truancy. Frequently a problem child is retarded,
his status produces dissatisfaction, then impudence,
punishment, and finally rebellion in the form of
truancy. During truancy various contacts, habits,
and attitudes are formed which lead him to violate
the law. Delinquency then is only an extreme form
of the problems faced daily by every teacher in the
classroom.
2/
Baker believes that the reason teachers manifest
so much emotion over discipline problems is that
They are f re .uently felt to be a personal failure
on the part of the teaci^er, reflecting upon her
ability and tearing aown the morale of her class-
room.
If she is confronted with a child who cannot conform
because of a visual or auditory difficulty, she xias no
such reaction. Many teachers even get a great deal cf
satisfaction from being able to help the physically handi-
capped child make his adjustment.
1/ New York Crime Commission Report, Albany N. Y.
J. 3. Lyon Co., Pub. 12^0 p. 575
%J Harry J. Eaker, "The "ducat ion of Behavior Problem
Children", Jc urnal of Educational Sociology , 6:362,
February 1923
\
VII. E£BI2 Ii^IVIDuhL T«E4I«EH1
1/
In the s^rne manner says Dr. Glueck,
Youngsters who present benavior difficulties
should be studied clinically and given adequate
supervision as seen as possible after the appearance
of symptoms of maladjustment. Obviously, the more
plastic the ago, the mere promising are the results
of the treatment. Society has too patently been
neglecting the early danger signals of personality
adjustment ^nd of criminality in not providing
adequate school-clinic facilities for the study and
treatment of problem children, a sufficient number
of "special classes" in the school system, exten-
sive visiting teacher programs, otner means of
guidance, and additional room in the schools for
the feebleminded.
In tne National Education Association Research
2/
Bulletin the first step listed in crime prevention is to
make special provision for tne problem cniid, or potential
delinquent. This does not mean tnat tne problem child
should be removed from tne regular classroom and placed in
a special class or school. Itfuch of the benefit of remedial
ana special classes is lost .vhen t^ey become a "dumping
ground" for tne benavior problems. Tne cnild becomes
resentful at being placed with the slow-learning and
retarded children or with those having some other disabili-
ties. In turn ne shows his resentment by otner overt acts
1/ Shelaon Glueck and Eleanor T. Glueck, One Then
Juvenile lelin.uents _T Harvard University Press, Cambridge,
1954 p. £77
National Education Association Research Bulletin,
Crine Prevention Through A-aucationj 10:171 Sept, 1932
of aggression, until it becomes a vicious circle with the
child as the loser.
y
In St. Paul it was found that the great majority
of referrals were for truancy and the causes of trie
truancy were academic maladjustment or specific educational
disabilities .
2/
Hill's work with offenders led him to believe that
the reason most offenders left school earlier than the
average was because the school experience was not signifi-
cant enough to make a distinct and lasting impression on
him.
Recently the writer was discussing discipline
problems -and pro Diem children with a classroom teacher who
made the comment that she never had any problems in her
classes, yet her classes were notoriously out of control
by any standards. Another teacher who is of the traditional
school, has been complaining for years that about ninety
per cent of the pupils in her classes are problems of some
kind. These instances are cited to illustrate the different
points of view cf teacners who are coming in contact with
some of the same pupils. One recognized no abnormalities
and the other saw almost nothing but deviations. She was
1/ Katherine Lenroot, op. cit. p. 13
2/ George E. Fill, op. cit. pp, 558-559
*
irritated by such trivial incidents as a chair scraping
on the floor, a child bumping into a t a Die or cnair,
dropping a pencil or book ana so on. Tnis is the type of
8/
teacner to whom .^ickman was referring, when he said,
Teachers recognize so many deviations of conduct
that they become dulled to individual problems.
He also found that the teachers who reported the most
behavior problems in the groups were usually disliked by
most of the children in their groups.
1/
Martin found that children were less disturbed
emotionally by the treatment tuey received, if it were
constant. Even the attituae of rejection on the part of
the parents was less difficult for the child, if that
attitude were maintained. When the parent was affectionate
to the point of indulgence one day and rejected the child
tne next day, the child became unbalanced emotionally. The
same facts hold true for the child-teacher relationship.
The attitude should be fairly constant, so tnat the child
knows what to expect.
In recent studies there seems to be a general
agreement tnat the personal relationship between the
teacher and pupil is one of the strongest factors in the
child's adjustment. ^
1/ Alexander F.eid Martin, "A Study of Parental Attitudes
and Their Influence Upon Personality Development n j Education,
June 1345, p. 63
2/ E. K. Wickman, op. cit. p. 58
V
Appel expresses the idea very well, ..hen she says
tnat the teacner's attitude should be neither sentimental
nor coldly impersonal, but one of genuine .•arm friendliness
a true interest in tne chila and his welfare. Each child
needs personal treatment. It is impossible "to treat all
children alike" and be fair. There should be a different
type of reaction on the part of tne teacher toward the
overly aggressive child and tne :;uiet, withdrawing child.
Eratton suggests tnat the wise teacher will
"occasionally give a thought to the silent, brooding lad
who never causes ner a moment's trouble." She will seldom,
if ever, scold him. Usually this type of child is
miserable enough as it is. he is often tne potential
victim of dementia praecox, if he is not drawn gently out
of tne shell which he has built up around himself as a
protection.
A lack of concern for the maladjusted, underprivi-
leged, and handicapped does net cause delinquency, but it
is a contributing factor. The needs and problems of youth
cannot be solved in mass, but must be dealt with on an
individual basis. Many youths have the same problem, but
1/ Madeleine Hunt Appel, "Aggressive Behavior of Nursery
School Children and Adult Procedures in Dealing with Such
Behavior " . Journal of "Experimental Education 11:139 Dec. 1942
£/ Dorotny Brattcn, "Classroom Guidance of Pupils Exhib-
iting Behavior Problems", Elementary Scnc ol Journal
45: £67 Jan. 1945
in the last analysis they must be worked out personally and
individually. This is tne idea expressed in the
y
Massachusetts Youth Study Report,
s/
Barbour is convinced that tne neart of good
guidance lies in tne human relationships whicn exist in
every classroom ana in every school. Guidance is a matter
in wh&ek every teacher, administrator and supervisor
participates daily. The f crward-looking school systems
are providing specialized services to help teachers and
administrators meet increasing problems of pupil adjustment.
Again referring to the National Education Associa-
tion research Bulletin, Crime Prevention Tnrcurh Education,
the following suggestions are made as to w^ys in which the
school can help:
1. Through the establishment of research
bureaus to study child behavior
2. By the improvement of each classroom
situation, so as to reauce pupil maladjustment
5. Full co-operation with juvenile court
authorities
- r
1/ Massachusetts Youth Report Relating to the Education
and Employment of the Youth of the Commonwealth of
Massachusetts .
2j Richmond Barbour, "The Organization of Guidance Ser-
vice in a City School System" , Calif ornia Journal of
Elementary Dauc&tiQn. 14:213 May 1946
Zj National Education Association Research Bull e t in . Cr ime
Prevention Through education 10:183 September 1932
<r
In the Strayer Report, a£ a Survey fl£ t..-.H Piihl
1/
Schools of jj c s t on j, Ma s s a c hu s s 1 t s we find this statement
in regard to finding the child who is in need of help.
This does not consist of a passive waiting for
problems to become evident or a waiting for- referrals
after difficulties have arisen. It must be an active
planned process directed toward the end that no child
shall suffer unnecessary maladjustment or failure to
reach his highest potentialities of educational,
physical, spiritual, or social growth through any
failure actively to search out any factors in him or
in his heme or educational environment which may
impede or obstruct such growth.
VIII,. HE1© OF DEFINITE PROGRAM
It is evident in the light of all that has been
said about delinquency that to cope with it successfully,
a definite program will have to be set up. Past experienc
tends to shew that it cannot be left to the initiative of
the classroom teachers, most of whom have net had the
training necessary to efficiently nandle the proolem.
2/
baker sums it up in tnese v/ords:
There is no inherently mysterious problem which
has not been solved, except that of finding out how
to evolve a more understanding and comprehensive
program and put it into operation on a large scale.
1/ George D. Strayer, Report of a Survey of the Public
Schools of Be sten, Mass. T City of Boston Printing Depart-
ment, 1944 p. 5<:9
2/ Harry J. Baker, "The Education of Behavior Problem
Children", Journal of I^uucaticnal Sociology 6:370
February 13Z3
1/
Kill lists five fields of special effort on the
part of tne school.
1. Curriculum revision — more subjects that nave
significance.
2. Diagnosis ana treatment of behavior problems —
understanding of the basis of aifficulty.
3. Early treatment — elementary school and junior
high school.
4. Recreational activities — elementary boys and
girls should learn to participate and school facilities
should be made available after school hours.
5. Character outcomes — acknowledgment of right
and wrong; practice in doing right, motivation to ao
rifc ht«
V/ithin recent years we have heard much about
curriculum revision. At least an attempt is being made
to fit the curriculum to the needs of a larger group of
children. The old traditional school had only those pupils
having the higher I. Q.'s who were capable of using the
higher mental processes. When a child could not meet the
requirements of the classical or college preparatory
course, he dropped out of school, sometimes after consid-
erable struggle and heartbreak.
1/ George E. Hill, op. ext. p. 560
Compulsory attendance laws made it requisite that
these slow, dull children remain in school, iffe found them
repeating year after year 'until the compulsory age was
reached. Ivlany of the more aggressive ty pe became so badly
maladjusted that they came in contact with the law and
their eaucation was completed in a penal institution.
In writing of a study carried on among trie inmates
y
of a juvenile detention school, hoyt says,
The investigators after careful observations
attriouted this maladjustment largely to the type
cf education received. Their conclusion is that
there should be a complete reversal of the all too
prevalent policy of attempting to force all boys
through the same educational process.
He goes on to say that the San ^uentin faculty state
that there should be numerous tests given in school to see
what "makes people tick", thus striving for prevention
through correct education.
The more progressive school systems have recognized
that not all children can be expectea to attain the
scholastic levels of the potential college student. This
situation is handled in several ways, by means of special
marks that indicate satisfactory attainment for that
particular child, a special certificate upon the completion
of the minimum essentials of the course or completion of
1/ H. H. Hoyt, "Juvenile Delinquency in Times of Social
Grange", Social Studies. 5a-: 162, April 1943
*
a special curriculum set up for the slow learning and
retarded children.
IX. SCiiuOL GRABBS
The system of no grades in the usual sense, sounds
simple, but nere again the personality of the teacher enters
into the picture.
In a school system where the writer taught, grades
of "Satisfactory" and "Unsatisfactory" were given. Two
other marks were given to indicate irregularities. One of
the marks was to indicate a degree of attainment lower
than the child's capacity. The other indicated that the
child was working to capacity, but was net achieving up to
grade level. Since the marks were subjective, based
entirely on the teacher's judgment 9 the pla.n was not
successful. If intelligence quotients could have been
obtained for the doubtful pupils, much of trie subjectivity
could have been eliminated. After trying several varia-
tions of the plan, the sencol has returned to the tradi-
tional plan of "1", "2", "3", W* and "5".
The idea is often expressed tnat grades are not
important, but in reviewing studies of delinquents, it is
evident that grades are at least a factor. In a study
1/
conducted by Hill it was found tnat few boys in the
1/ George E. Hill, "Educational Attainments of Young
Male Offenders", Elementary Sencol Journal . 56:5o
September 1S35
correctional school hac. gone beyond the eighth grade and
only 15 per cent beyond the first year of high school.
In every case, the level cf achievement was below the
grade cf attainment. The scholastic ratings based on
teachers' marks were: good records, 8 per cent; fair
records, 45 per cent; poor records, 47 per cent. Only
14 per cent had never failed; 50 per cent had failed some
courses and o5 per cent had failed often. The causes of
failure were listed as lew intelligence, lack of interest,
excessive absence, indifference, lack of effort, and
poor home surroundings.
The same facts as to school failure are reported
in practically every study cf delinquents or criminals,
only the details differ. It would seem that the greatest
number of casualties are in tne ranks of the dull normal
and borderline.
In an article, "High School Methods with Slow
1/
Learners" is the statement,
If the slow learner attempts to keep up with
the average, he is under more pressure, hence, may
become more worried, excited, ever-sensitive, sny,
apathetic j lazy, dishonest, rebellious, or vicious.
Before saying he is emotionally abnormal, tne school
should, be sure that the symptoms are net due to
physical disabilities or lack of adjustment between
his abilities and the demands of the school, or out
of school environment.
1/ Rational Education research Bulletin, "High Scnocl
Methods with Slow Learners", 21:68 October 1945
X. ADJUSTMENT SERVICES
All studies seam to show that the school program
is vital in the adjustment of some children. Of equal
importance, and working hand-in-hand with the classroom
teacher, should be the adjustment services which under-
stand and diagnose the maladjusted behavior. This is
followed by the treatment, which to be really effective,
must take place in the elementary school or net later
than junior high school.
This phase of the work as it is usually set up,
consists of the visiting teacher, psychologist, social
worker and, if the difficulty is severe, the psychiatrist.
Programs of this type will be discussed in the following
chapter on the basis of information received through
personal correspondence from the guidance department of
thirteen cities in the United States.
Community agencies and recreational facilities
u
will net be discussed in this thesis. Daly has given
an excellent discussion of the part that planned recrea-
tion can play in the prevention of delinquency, especially
1/ Francis J. Daly, Maladjustment and Delinquency: The
Responsibility of Large Urban Scnool Systems for Certain
Aspects of their Control, Unpublished Master's Thesis 9
3oston University, Scnool of Education 1945, pp. 144-146
as applied to the Boston area.
In the light of the studies reviewed, it would
seem that tnere is considerable agreement on certain
phases of early detection of maladjustment ana delinquency.
Authorities in this field seem to agree that it is
entirely possible to detect deviations by means of cer-
tain traits, characteristics, and symptoms in evidence in
the classroom, as follows:
1. Retardation and failure.
£. Truancy and unnecessary tardiness.
2. Petty stealing, cheating, and lying.
4. Group misfit; sxiy, solitary, over-aggressive
or hyper-active t unpopular v/ith other cnildren.
Any of the above symptoms should warn the class-
room teacher that the child is maladjusted. When these
symptoms appear in combinations, ana especially when it
is evident that the child's home is of lev/ standard, tne
child is in need of nelp.
The manner in which tuis help can be given will be
discussed in the following chapter in the light of what
is being done in thirteen of the large school systems in
the United States.
*
CHAPTER III
bUkivxrvriY OF THE MATERIAL COMPILE FROM
THIRTEEN LriRGc CITIES ^OnKluG IN THE FIELD
As stated in the previous chapter, the organization
of guidance and adjustment services in twelve large cities
of the United States will be studied in an attempt to
discover what means are being used to sensitize the class-
room teacher to the beginnings of maladjustments.
A letter (see Appendix Exnibit A) was sent to the
Director of Guidance in each of twelve school systems
asking what means were used to sensitize the classroom
teacher to the beginnings of maladjustments among her
pupils and also how successful the method seemed to be.
The material received from these twelve scnocl
systems will be reviewed in an attempt to answer these two
questions .
Seattle, Washington, is one of the scnool systems
that has a very detailed program, offering many services
to the classroom teacxier. Quoting from a letter received
1/
by the writer from the Director of Guidance, sne says,
First, we offer, through the Guidance Department,
courses for teachers in Mental Hygiene, Tests and
Measurement, Growth and Development, Causes for
Delinquency and Maladjustments, etc.
1/ Personal correspondence of the writer, letter from
Virginia Lee Block, February 19, 1947
Second, the Guidance Department works closely
with all classroom teachers through the city surveys
which teachers give but which are under the super-
vision of the Guidance Department. Interpretations
of the results of group tests are maae by the
Guidance Department to teachers through the system.
Any aberrations from tne normal on tne emotional,
social, physical, or academic levels are called to
the attention of tne teacners, and emphasis is
placed upon the causes underlying these behavior
patterns .
Mimeographed bulletins are sent to the teachers
explaining tne services offered by tne Guidance Department
and also instructions fcr the use of the various forms of
referral. In 1959, groups of principals, advisers,
counselors ana members of tne Guidance Department met to
discuss suggestions which had been maae in part by the
classroom teachers for revising- the referral form.
The purpose of this form is:
1. To give tne psychologist an iaea of the
reason fcr referral.
8. To give the psychologist a picture of tne
child which aids her during tne testing.
3. To aid in verifying pertinent aata such as
date of oirth, size of family, etc.
4. To give the Child Guidance Department the
school's point of view previous to the interview
with tne parents, enabling the social worker to
gain rapport witn the parents and attack the problem
more intelligently.
f
In most schools it is the accepted practice to
have the teacher, nurse and principal confer before the
referral form is filled out. All teachers who have the
child for any class are called in for tne conference.
Tkis conference in itself has been known to bring about
a better understanding of the child.
Confidential material regarding the case may be
telephoned to the Guidance Department or written separately
and tnen put in the confidential files of tne Department.
The recommendations from the Guidance Department
are made in tne form of suggestions to the school or
agency on the basis cf tne information that the Department
has. It is left entirely to the discretion cf tne school
principal or agency to carry out the recommendations. The
Guidance Department is anxious to discuss any recommend -
aticns over Which there may be a difference of opinion.
The referral form, called tne Clinical Picture,
gives the personal data about tne child, also the
information about his home background, school history,
test record, physical examination report, habits, special
abilities, likes, dislikes, difficulties, social and
emoticnal adjustment, home conditions (report by social
worker), activities in and out of school and other inform-
ation from interviews. The final sheet is for recom-
mendations. There is a re-referral form to be used, if
*
r
the child is referred again within a three-year period.
This form is short, containing only the information that
will bring the case up to date. There is another form sent
out by the Guidance Department during the semester fol-
lowing the first study. This is by way of a check on the
chile's progress.
In contrast to the elaborate system for referrals
in Seattle, Washington, Denver, Colorado, has very little
to offer. The program depends on the
. . . alertness ana understanding of good teachers
and principals trained in the philosophy and tech-
nique of child guidance. 1/
Denver has one teacher who gives full time to Binet testing-
Group tests are encouraged and are given by teachers and
principals. Very limited assistance is g iven by the Child
Guidance Clinic of the Colorado General hospital. There
is no psychological cr psychiatric help on the school staff
The Los Angeles, California, city schools depend
chiefly on two methods for in-service training for teachers
concerning the beginnings of maladjustment and delinquency.
First, a background of "knowledge of the genesis and
development cf human behavior" is built up through teacher
institutes and workshops conducted "partly by lecture and
1/ Personal correspondence of the writer, letter from
Gary Fox, Director, Department of Pupil Personnel,.
February 1947.
f
y
partly by conference method*. Small groups using the
workshop techniques are composed of teachers who make
observations of from one to four children over an extended
period of time.
Another method of sensitizing teachers is tnrough
the work of the psychological service and clinic counselors
Children who show deviations are given a psychological
examination and later the counselor or psychologist gives
the teacher the benefit of the findings and recommendations
2/
In Spokane, v.1 ashing ton, the Director of Guidance
states that they have
... no definite formula or plan that permits a
teacher to determine delinquency, Most cases of
delinquency result from conditions outside the
school, and while the alert teacher senses items or
incidents of maladjustment we have no pattern
formula for her to follow.
The teachers may call in a field social worker who lists
the problem under the following headings to determine
possibilities of improper adjustment:
1. Emotional Maladjustment
B. Health Conditions
8* Home Conditions
4. Environmental Conditions
1/Personal correspondence of the writer, letter from
Elizabeth L. Woods, Supervisor Guidance and Counseling,
Elementary Education Divisicn, January 23, 1947
2/ Personal correspondence of the writer, letter from
Ralph A. Peterson, Director of Guidance, January 27, 1947
f
No suggestion is given as to how trie cases are handled
and apparently, the finding of maladjustments is left to
the initiative of tne teacher.
San Francisco, California, is another city which
ccnaucts in-service training series for the teachers.
There seems to oe nothing compulsory about the training,
but teachers and principals are encouraged to carry along
the v.crk of early detection in the schools. The Child
Guidance vService is always overloaded with cases which
have been referred from the schools.
Santa Barbara would seem to have an outstanding
program of child guidance. In the Bulletin of the
1/
Guidance Department is tnis statement:
Tne purpose of tne Child Guidance Department,
refined through eleven years of experience has
become, therefore, an attempt to incorporate in
the City Schools t^e principles of mental hygiene,
not fortuitously as has often happened in the past,
but in a well-organized pattern which recognizes
child growth and development and extends into all
aspects of school organization and administration.
The guidance personnel consists of one fuii-time
counselor, ana teacner-counselors in tne various schools
vvho are relieved of teaching duties regularly each week
by b. substitute or by their principal. Tne amount of
time given to counseling in each school depends upon the
1/ Charlotte D. Elmott, "An Analysis of the Services of
the Child Guidance Department, Santa Barbara, California,
August 1946
f
needs of that school. Tnese counselors are all trained
in child guidance procedures, are competent psycnometrists,
and nave, with one exception, all had training in a
clinical setting. The counselors nave the responsibility
for individual case studies, for arranging with principals
for case conferences, for making home visits to secure
social data, for conducting individual psychological
examinations, etc. They also supervise the group testing
program in their schools.
All cnilaren entering the Santa Barbara school
system for the first time are tested by the counselors as
are absentees during the scheduled group tests. The
elementary classroom teachers administer and score the
achievement tests, but the counselors give the intelligence
tests and they are scored by the central office of the
Guidance Department. The teachers turn in all tests
results and the analysis is worked out in the central
office.
From the results of these tests the following
research bulletins have been prepared:
Reading and Arithmetic Achievement Grades 5-9
Intelligence Test Results
A Study of Second Grade Achievement
A Stucty of First Year Reading Achievement
A Study of the Incidence of Mental Deficiency
in the City Schools
In the elementary schcols tne principals are
charged with the daily check on causes of absence.
Principals may refer special attendance problems to the
director of guidance for special study. An attempt nas
been made during the war years to increase the case con-
ferences and decrease the referrals to the Probation Office.
Attenaance has improved. In 1944-45, 122 case conferences
were held in regard to attendance, while in 1945— =6 only
80 such conferences were held.
In all of this work, the emphasis is placed on
the individual child.
The case conference technique seems to provide
the best method for helping teachers and social
workers to develop objectivity and under standing of
the needs of children. 1/
It has been found that thoughtful consideration of one
child's needs, tends to transfer the "accepting" attitude
to other children with similar problems. It is through
this means that the school personnel is being trained to
recognize and help the child with special problems.
Tne reasons for referrals have not varied appreci-
ably except that during the war years there was an
increase in cases classified as "behavior problems",
especially tne mors aggressive type. In 1939-40 some
18.4$ of the cases were classified as behavior, but in
1/ Charlotte D. Elmott, op. cit., section 6
4
i
the last two years the number has nearly doubled —
34. 6% in 1844-45, and 37. bfo in 1945-46. These figures
also include referrals from the high scnools.
Grade placement also receives study in the belief
that the child should be placed where he will work most
effectively .
In Portland, Oregon, we find the guidance program
in the elementary school, under trie direction of the
principal. It is his duty to enlist the interest and
aid of the classroom teacner in the individual pupils
and their problems. To enable the teacher to understand
the pupils and make her proper contribution, it was felt
that the teacher should work with the child for a suf-
ficient length of time to make it possible for her to
know the child. A change from departmental work back to
the homeroom has been made. Each elementary teacher has
one group for half of the day, then the pupils change
teachers for music, art, physical education, etc.
Out of this greater understanding of the child has
come the Cumulative Record Form. This record is as its
name implies, an accumulation of data, information,
experiences and recommendations • At three levels — the
end of the third grade, sixth grade and during the eighth
grade — the results of a principal-teacher conference are
recorded and tne child's progress is summarized.
i
It is felt that a good program should ' be built on
the alertness of the teacher and her personality. Stress
is laid on good mental health of tne teacher who will in
turn create in her room an atmosphere that guarantees
the pupils being surrounded day by day with good mental
health influences.
The child must feel that those about him have a
genuine affection for him — accept him for wnat he
is — little or oig, dark or light, beautiful or ugly,
crippled or healthy, bright or dull. He must feel
like others in his group and be accepted by his peers.l/
The basic personality needs of most children are
met through their environment in the home, school and
community, However, about 10;^ of school pupils' needs are
not met through these agencies. Their ^nysical make-up,
intellectual reactions, behavior patterns and emotional
attitudes she?/ various types of symptomatic behavior.
The visiting teachers and social workers give special
service in tne schools to help these cxJLldren.
A distinction is made between behavior problem
children, who are those shewing aggressive tendencies, and
the personality problems, who are regressive in benavior.
The latter type are more easily overlooked, out are likely
to be more serious from tne mental health view point.
When either type is detected and does net respond to tne
classroom teacher, trie visiting teacher is called upon
1/ Portland Public Schools handbook of Health and
Adjustment Services T Curriculum Bulletin No. 1, 1345
for assistance.
Tnis program is outlined in the Handbook of health
and Adjustment Services . Teachers and principals are
asked to stuay the dock and keep it at nana for reference
and guidance.
In-service courses carrying college credit are
offered, but are net required.
Tne Director of Pupil Personnel in Milwaukee
1/
states :
We attempt to acquaint tne classroom teacher with
the beginnings of maladjustment and delinquency in
our pupils by a process of in-service training where
tnese teachers through stuay groups within each
indiviaual school spena an hour of work "with and
later discussing the techniques of child observation,
cniia study, ana child development. We have found
that this is by far tne most successful way of doing
it and for us it has gotten results.
Two bocks used on the study of maladjusted children
are Gertrude Lriscoll's How to Study Behavior of Children ,
Columbia University Press and How Children Davelop j an
Ohio btate University publication of 1946.
2/
Rochester, Mew York, has no guidance department
and leaves the discovery of anti-social traits in pupils
pretty much to the classroom teacher. They have a very
1/ Personal correspondence of the writer, letter from
Irving vV. Stout, January 29, 1947
2/ Personal correspondence of the writer, letter from
Raymond C. Koeple, Director of Department of Attendance,
January 51, 1917
small, inadequate, psychological staff who, in a limited
way, try to discover deviations also.
In Detroit, Michigan, the Psychological Clinic is
the central agency from which all testing, case work and
adjustment coma, a regular tasting program is carried
on, first through group tests followed by individual
intelligence tests. Each semester all B first grade
pupils are tested for classification. For three days
each year 175 teachers who had training in testing assist
in examining the B first candidates. Tne group tests are
also given each semester to A fourth, A eighth and
3 twelfth grades. All pupils new to the system are also
examined .
The vocational aptitude testing is semi-group
and semi-individual designed to give service on certain
maladjusted pupils principally in grades 7-12. Tnese
pupils are referred by the scnools, by attendance depart-
ment, by social agencies, by parents or oy the pupils
themselves .
The psychologists who do the mental testing give
half of tneir time to social case work. Elementary
pupils referred for special examination present a var-
iety of problems including mental, physical, ana emotional.
Recommendations to special classes for tiie mentally
retarded or to classes or schools for the physically
#
•
handicapped are made. Social case histories are ^re^areo
for all pupils examined individually . This report
includes early developmental history, the health history,
significant facts with regard to the cultural pattern
and status cf the family background, and a description of
the pupil and his personality development.
Three physicians devote part time to examining
all children who have the individual mental tests.
Advisory notices of the finding are sent to parents who
are encouraged to consult their family physician. Two
psychiatrists also serve in an advisory capacity on a
part time basis.
Trie visiting teacher program was set up to assist
in the early recognition cf benavior difficulties of
the following types:
1. Personality difficulties evident in with-
drawing and unhappy behavior
£. Failure to accomplish in school commensurate
with ability
5. ©bvious behavior difficulties and
i. Adverse home conditions
The attention is directed, in the main, toward
young children in the elementary school. There is a
minimum coverage cf the intermediate and high schools.
Boston University
•School of Education
Library
4
•
Approximately one-fifth of the children receiving
service were already enrolled in the Ungraded Classes
where a combination cf the Visiting Teacner program
and the remedial educational program was designed to
reduce delinquency among the most potential candidates
from the entire school system. 1/
More tnan three-fourths of the cases studied
made good or fair improvement in pupil-teacher relation-
ships with approximately the same number in which the
attituae toward the school also improved. Two-thirds of
the group made favorable improvement in attendance and
scnolarship. From two-thirds to three-fourths improved
in sucxi traits as reliability, co-operation and socia-
bility. A large majority improved in health,
2/
Quoting from a letter from Dr. Baker:
We have a personality rating sheet for kinder-
garten teacner s to use on all their pupils in
about half of the Detroit schools in connection
with the program of reading readiness. . . • Our
visiting teacher program is concentrating gradu-
ally upon younger children.
As might be expected, New York City has a very
well-organized program of child guidance. Courses,
seminars and workshops are given by members of the Bureau
cf Child Guidance, but it is fslt tnat,
1/ harry J. Baker , "Report of the psychological Clinic','
Detroit Public Schools, 1944-45
2/ Personal correspondence of the writer, letter from
Dr. harry J. Baker, February 3, 1947
•
The most significant educational work is the
direct product cf clinical service. It is through
the knowledge gained from clinical evaluation of the
individual child that teachers have the best oppor-
tunity for gaining insight into the nature of behavior.
They are enabled to see at first hand the effects of
attitudes and methods of handling in the causation
and treatment cf emotional disturbances, behavior
and personality problems. 1/
In service courses offered by the Board of Super-
intendents aimed to deepen and broaden the teacners1
understanding of children's needs and newer ways of meeting
them. Two types of approach were used. One focused
directly on trie needs of individual children at various
age levels. This was presented from the point of view of
both the teacher and the supervisor. The other approach
was through the orientation of teaciiers to the use of
social agencies in meeting the needs of individual chil-
dren.
Members of the staff participated in many courses
given by the other divisions of the school system.
Several psychiatrists gave time to courses sponsored by
the Board of Health. Gases Were presented before groups
cf graduate students. In these conferences, the findings
cf the social history , the psychological, physical and
psychiatric examination were discussed and a treatment plan
worked out on the basis of the discussion.
1/ Bureau cf Child Guidance, Annual Report, Board of
Education of the City of Sew York, 1944-45
Much infer mal interpretation of tne work is given
over the telephone to parents and teachers and others
interested in child adjustment.
The most potent factor is felt to be the inter-
pretation to the school personnel of the findings and
recommendations made in individual cases, Ihigi is done
orally and in writing and is followed up in serious cases
by continued conferences as tne child proceeds from class
to class. The teacher's own participation in the con-
duct of the case is in itself an application of the mental
hygiene principles involved. It seems to nolo, true tnat
what a teacner learns from working with one child, she
is able to apply in preventive work with others.
Some schools have evolved their own plans for
workshop groups. This is in an experimental stage, but
is expected to expand to otner scnools.
Tne Bureau attempts, through public relations, to
interpret its work to tne parents and general public. In
March lb'i.5, an exhibit was field snowing psychological
and psychiatric materials used in examining and treating
children, as well as examples of the work of tne children.
Drawing and paintings by tne children accompanied by
interpretations of them were displayed. Ail of tnis
establishes a better relationship betv/een the Guidance
Bureau, the teacher and the parents.
•
The reply from Tulsa, Oklahoma, did not directly
answer the questions asked. Two articles on guidance
were sent, each one rather general in nature. One by
1/
Aiilored Stever discusses the various agencies that are
available in Tulsa for help in solving the juvenile
V
problems. Another article by Pauline Cnappel Keaton
discusses the Cumulative Record, but does not give the
information asked for to answer the questions in tnis tnesi
Tne experiences of the Children's Bureau in one
district in St. Paul, Minnesota, from 1937-1942, are fairly
well-known, but will be mentioned here as they also show
what can be done in the matter of early detection.
In attempting to locate maladjusted children as
early as possible, the Children's Bureau turned to all
organizations who knew the children. The school, of
course, was foremost among these. Teachers v ere asked to
refer children whose behavior was causing any concern.
The police also referred any children whose behavior
brought thea to tne attention of an officer.
At first, mostly older children were referred.
During tne first year, the median age was thirteen years.
1/ Mildred Stever, "Utilizing Available Resources for
Guidance", Our Tulsa Schools . 5:14 December 1946
Zj Pauline Chappel Keaton, "Tne Cumulative Record",
Cur Tulsa Schools . 5:15 December 1946
•
•
Five years later, in 1942, tne median age of referral
had dropped to ten years. This indicates that close
co-operation between agencies, and an early awareness of
difficulties increases the chances of correcting existing
problems and preventing future difficulties.
Boston, Massachusetts, has no program for sen-
sitizing the classroom teacher to the beginnings of
maladjustment. The Child Adjustment Service attempts to
co-operate with the classroom teacher, giving aid wherever
it is needed and requested. This on-the-job co-operative
work has been .puite successful, but its cnief drawback
is that so few of tne problem children receive nelp until
their difficulty has become serious.
Table I. shows the means used by these school
systems to sensitize tne classroom teacher to the problem.
The item "no program" refers to no definite, outlined
program. Those cities in each case nave some nslp from
clinics, tests, social workers or from other sources.
It is undoubtedly true that some of tnese citxes nave
services that were not specifically mentioned, in which
case, they are not included in the table.
The item "in-service courses" is a very broad term
also, including actual training courses „nd also those
university extension courses that are on tne purely
voluntary basis.
•
•
TABLE I
MEANS USED TO SENSITIZE CLASSROOM TEACHERS
T3 d
•H O
<D
<$ «h
1 CD
O <D
<D
O
P
rH O
>
•H
ft
•H O
cd d
•H
> CO
O
cd <D
ft h CD
O +5
-P
a
h ©
xi 01
•H CD U
d
o cd
Cd T3
o
<D CQ
01 ft
•H «H
ft«H
H h
03 h
d o
d -p
•O (!) (D
d o
I d
o
•H
•h cd d
O 01
d xj -p
a o
d o
fn <D O
<D
Cd -P «H
3 CD
o
M O
^ o
O O
H O
o «
&2J
Boston
X
X
Denver
L
X
X
X
Detroit
X
X
X
X
X
X
Los Angeles
X
X
X
X
X
7
Milwaukee
X
X
X
?
7
X
New York City-
X
X
X
X
X
7
X
Portland, Oregon
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Rochester, N. Y.
L
X
San Francisco
X
7
X
X
X
7
7
Santa Barbara
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Seattle
X
X
X
X
X
X
Spokane
X
Tulsa
9
7
X
7
7
X
L denotes limited service
? indicates no definite information
•
1
1
1
•
In the light of the material received from these
thirteen cities, it would appear that there is a definite
trend toward mapping out a program aimea at early detec-
tion of maladjustment.
Sight cities stated that they- nave in-service
training for teachers. These courses vary in nature, but
are all stressing the need of greater understanding of
child development and behavior. Some cities also offer
courses dealing wxth the detection and treatment of
maladjusted behavior. The workshop technique, seems to be
a newer form of approach. In several instances, it is
still in the experimental stage. The workshop groups
observe, study and then discuss individuals or small
groups of c hilar en.
Twelve of the cities nave tne services of a clinic
wnich either aids in the work or, in some systems, guides
the work of detection. There seems to be a great deal of
variation in the clinical set-ups and their function.
Denver, Colorado, and Rochester, New York, both mentioned
having very limited services of a clinical nature. In I9o7,
Rochester had a fairly extensive department, but the
correspondence received by tne writer in January 19-i7,
states that, *' those schools having a psychological service
are in a much sounder position to discover these trends".
He goes on to state that Rochester has only a small group
of psychologists. Tnis seeming contradiction or change
within the past ten years may be aue to war conditions.
Group testing seems to be the primary method of
detection in a few systems. Those pupils low on the
tests are studied to determine the causes. Detroit, for
instance, has a very elaborate program of group tasting
scheduled for each semester, while Denver encourages the
teachers and principals to do group testing. Rochester,
New York, Milwaukee, and Spokane did not specifically
mention group testing.
Five cities mention the compiling of the cumulative
record as an aid to the classroom teacher in detecting
maladjustments and interpreting behavior.
Three cities definitely state that they have no
program of detection, that the classroom teacher is relied
upon to discover the deviations. In the correspondence
from Spokane, the statement was made tnat most delinquency
originates outside the school, so apparently the school
does not feel too concerned about it. The Director of
the Department of Attendance in Rochester presumes that in
most schools in the United States, the discovery of anti-
social traits is left pretty much to the classroom teacher.
In Denver, the detection of maladjustment depends on the
alertness ana understanding of good teachers and principals
«
trained in the philosophy and techniques of child guidance.
With no otner interpretation, it is impossible to know
just how much training and what type of training tne
principals and teachers have. There is only one teacher
who gives full time to Binet testing.
Boston and Seattle would appear to have tne most
elaborate referral forms.
CONCLUSIONS
From the sampling taken in various parts of the
United States, it would seem that much remains to be done,
if tne schools are to effectively play their part as
tne greatest of child training organizations. Tne schools
belong to the people and, as such, should serve all of
the children of all of the people. This can be done only
by careful attention to every child's individual needs.
Tne school has no right to rest until its program meets
the needs of 100$ of tne school children. All children
whose needs are not met by the regular classroom instructor
are deserving of special education.
To be efficiently handled, these classes must
necessarily be small; in the case of physically handi-
capped children in a hospital or at home, the instructor
is for one child at a time. Tne expense may seem great,
but in terms of the future citizen, it is small. If by
lb.
this means we can develop self-sufficient, well-adjusted
individuals who are not going to be dependent on the
taxpayers through the remainder of their lives, the cost
is small.
The various services should be very closely
integrated and T?rea tape" cut to a minimum. Much valuable
time is lost waiting for the referral to go through proper
channels until it reaches someone who has the authority
to approve the case for investigation. .Often the invest-
igation, numerous forms and records, take so long to
complete that the child has been irreparably harmed.
Adequate diagnosis and analysis of trie case are
necessary, so that true understanding will form trie basis
of treatment, Each department, --health, social work,
psychological, and educational — should contribute its
share of help. In this way, a balanced program of treat-
ment may be achieved through a central guidance department.
V
•
CHAPTER IV
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY AND RESEARCH
1. In the course of tJ^ls study, various avenues
of investigation have presented tnemselves. Stubbornness
as a personal characteristic is a trait that seems to
suggest further study. Just what causes it and what are
some of the most effective ways of handling the common
classroom evidences. The stubborn Child is perhaps one
of the most difficult to handle in a positive fashion.
2. Tne material received from the field suggests
further investigation as to tne amount of actual carry-
over from a lecture course on behavior problems to daily
living .
3. It would seem that there is need of further
study of a working relationship between the teacher and
the social worker. At tne present time, there is lack of
understanding and professional jealousy. How can the
teacher be given tne view point of tne social worker and
the social v/orker, in turn, be made to understand tne
educational problem.
4. It would seem triat further study is needed on
the problem of tne highly neurotic and psychotic teacher
as a factor in the maladjustment of school children. By
what means is it oossible to dismiss such a teacher without
doing further harm to them or to the children concerned.
5. Investigation seems to show that parents and
teachers recognize, and are disturbed by, different
types of behavior problems. Further study might be done
to determine whether this difference in standards is a
contributing factor in maladjustment.
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Carr, Lev, ell J., Delinquency Control.
New York: Harper & Brothers, 1941. 447 pp.
Drisccll, Gertrude, Ph. D., Ho v.- to Study the Behavior of
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Columbia University, rJew York, 1941. 84 pp.
Fenton, Norman, cental Hy g.iene and School Practice .
Stanford University Press, St .nford University,
California, 1943. pp. 1-185
C-lueck, Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck, Cne Thousand Juvenile
Eelin agents . Cambridge: Harvard University Press,
pp. 1-347
Glueck, Sheldon and Eleanor T. Glueck, Five hundred
Criminal Careers . New York: Alfred A. Knopf.,
1930. pp. 130-134
Hewitt, Lester Eugene and Richard L. Jenkins, Fundamental
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1946. pp. 6-30
Hoi "lingworth, Leta S., Cmldren Above IdO 1.
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Keliey, Truman L. , Essential Traits cf Mental Life .
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Massachusetts Youth Stuay, a Report Relating tc the
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Smith, E. and Ralph W. Tyler, Ap h raising and Recording-
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Strayer, George D., Report of a. Survey of tiie Public
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White j William A., rental Ry f iene of o^llahcod ,
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Wickman, E. Koster, Children1 s Behavior and Teachers *
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Division of Publications, 1928. 247 pp.
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Appel, Madeleine Hunt, "Aggressive Behavior of hursery
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with Such Behavior," Journal of Experimental
Education, December 1942. pp. 185-199.
Condensation cf Doctor's dissertation at Bryn Ifawr
College, April 1942.
Baker, Harry J., "The Education of Behavior Problem
Children," Journal of Education Sociology ,
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1-
Barbour, Richmond, "The Organization cf Guidance Service
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Eratton, Dorothy, "Classroom Guidance of Pupils Exhibiting
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U. S.
U. 3.
r
APPENDIX
r
t
EXHIBIT A
COPY
o<34 Bay State Road
Boston, 15, Mass.
January 25, 1947
Director cf Child Guidance
Public Schools
Denver, Colorado
Dear Sir:
For my Master's thesis in Boston University Scnocl
of Education j I am trying to find what means various
school systems use to sensitize classroom teacners to the
beginnings cf maladjustment and delinquency among their
pupils .
"Would you please tell me of the plan employed in
your system and how successful does it seem to be? If you
use any printed forms, would it be possible to secure a
copy?
I shall sincerely a^_,reciate any information that
you care to give.
Very truly yours,
(Signed) HE&EN a. PBtNCE
Eel en A. Prince
4r.
COPY
S$ATTLJS PUBLIC SCHOOLS
Guidance Department
810 Dexter Avenue
Seattle 3, Washing ton
Virginia Lee Block, Director
February 12, 1947
Miss Helen A. Prince
334 Bay State Road
Boston, 15, Massachusetts
Dear Miss Prince:
I hardly know he v. to answer the questions that you
raised in a letter. To actualJ.y give you a picture of
the manner in which we try to sensitize cur teachers to
the beginnings cf maladjustments would require a young
thesis. I am, therefore, just merely going to outline to
you some cf the tnings we do.
First, we offer, through the Guidance Department,
courses for teachers in Mental Hygiene, Tests and r.Ieasure-
ment, Growtn and Development, Causes for Delinquency and
Maladjustments , etc .
Second, the Guidance Department works closely with
all classroom teachers tnrough the city surveys which
teachers give but which are under the supervision of the
Guidance Department. Interpretations of the. results of
group tests are mace by tne Guidance Department to teachers
through the system. Any aberrations from the normal on
the emotional, social, physical, or academic levels are
called to the attention of the teachers, and emphasis is
placed urcn the causes underlying ti~ese behavior patterns.
Each school is acquainted with the Clinical Pic-
ture which teachers fill out for children whom they wish
to refer to the Guidance Department for study. Ti.ese
Clinical Pictures demand a careful analysis of tne total
child. Many schools use these for their own analyses of
their children Wx.om they do not send for help to the
Guidance Department.
H. A. Prince-2
Under separate cover I am enclosing a copy of our
Clinical Picture, the follow-up sheet, and directions,.
To give you an illustration of what we mean by the City
Survey we are sending you an analysis blank of cur 4B
reading survey.
Sincerely yours,
(Signed) VIRGINIA LEE BLOCK
Virginia Lee .Block
Director
Guidance Department
VLB : mmi
4
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